Operation Penguin

The political backdrop: During World War II, the Western Allies collaborated with the Soviet Union to defeat Nazi Germany.
It was not long after the war before the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as opponents in the Cold War, i.e. the struggle for supremacy and hegemony in the world. The United States provided support for the reconstruction of war-torn Europe – also to avoid discontent that could give rise to support for communism. The latter part of the 1940s was characterized by, among other things, the Soviet blockade of West Berlin and the communist takeover of power in Czechoslovakia. The Soviet Union emerged as an ambitious superpower.
The United States, for its part, wanted to contain Soviet expansion. NATO was created as a Western counterpart.
Where there is a power vacuum, someone will usually take the opportunity to fill the void. For example, with activity in the unpopulated continent of Antarctica.
In 1948, the pre-war Norwegian Svalbard and Arctic Ocean Research Institute was renamed the Norwegian Polar Institute. The organization received oceanographer and meteorologist Harald U. Sverdrup as its first director after the reorganization and name change. The change meant a stronger focus on Antarctica.

The Maudheim Expedition: In the early stages of the Cold War, Britain, Sweden and Norway sent a joint expedition to Antarctica, which wintered in the period 1949-1952. The Maudheim Station was established three to four kilometers from the edge of the barrier at about 10.55 degrees west. The expedition consisted of 18 men, seven of whom were Norwegian. Britain's participation also included people from the Commonwealth countries: one from Canada and two from Australia. The expedition leader was John Giæver. Both the 1949 expedition and the 1952 return voyage were with Norsel of Tromsø, skipper Guttorm Jakobsen.

The expedition lost three men when a tracked vehicle during a test drive in bad weather with low visibility drove off the edge of the barrier and fell seven to eight meters into the sea.

Planning new Antarctic expeditions: Scientists in most countries were increasingly eager to conduct more research on the almost unpopulated ice continent. No nation had international legal sovereignty over all or part of the continent. But geography, history and economic activity meant that many nations believed they could assert 'claims' to sovereignty over parts of the continent.
Scientists were eager to conduct research. The dominant question was often how much, how often, how expensive – and who would or would pay. And underneath lay the fear that a competitor in the major political arena might get there first and get stuck. In the background lurked the Soviet Union and their plans.
Discussions took place in the research community, directorates, ministries, among politicians and in diplomacy. In Norway, the leadership of the Norwegian Polar Institute was central. One of the issues was whether, and possibly to what extent, the whaling industry and their joint organization could help with financing.
It was uncertain where other nations could be considered to establish their stations. The United States signaled a desire to establish a station at Cape Norway just west of the former Maudheim, well over 10 degrees west. This is said to have led to both the Norwegian government and the United States seeing themselves as interested in a Norwegian station further east, at the 0 meridian. More or less quietly, an agreement was reached with the United States that Norway could send an expedition and establish a station in Antarctica near the 0 meridian.

The International Geophysical Year (IGY): The international collaboration planned an International Geophysical Year, with geophysical research conducted around the globe. What was called a 'year' was decided to be one and a half years – from 1 July 1957 to 1 January 1959, with 12 participating nations and a total of 67 personnel from 12 nations. The International Geophysical Year was also a continuation of the First International Polar Year of 1882/83 and the Second Polar Year of 1932/33.
The participating nations were to make coordinated observations at stations along three degrees of longitude from pole to pole – and along two degrees of latitude around the entire Earth. At stations at – or close to – these lines, observations of various geophysical properties and values ​​were to be made at set times. The three longitude sections were to run over America; Asia/Australia and Africa/Europe (along 10 degrees east). Polar stations far north and far south along these lines were given special priority. Norway and the other Scandinavian countries were given a special task of taking observations along 10 degrees east, including at Norway's permanent Arctic stations in the north. In Antarctica, Norway was given responsibility for observations in the area from 10 degrees east, over Queen Maud Land and Bouvet Island to Peter I Island at 90 degrees west.

Norway Station: The Norwegian expedition – officially called the Norwegian Antarctic Expedition 1956-60 – was planned under the leadership of director Harald U. Sverdrup. The expedition consisted of 14 men from the start. There were several changes in the staff. In the last year, 1959/60, the staff was reduced to nine men.
Director Harald U. Sverdrup wanted meteorologist Nils Jørgen Schumacher as expedition leader. Schumacher had been on the Maudheim expedition. But Schumacher could not take on the task due to family and a temporary position at the university. Surveyor at the Norwegian Polar Institute Sigurd Gunnarson Helle became expedition leader.

The Norwegian Antarctic Expedition of 1956-60 was the first Norwegian scientific wintering expedition to Antarctica since Roald Amundsen's South Pole Expedition of 1910-12. (The Maudheim Expedition of 1949-52 was a multinational collaboration).
The expedition to Dronning Maud Land left Oslo with the two Arctic ships Polarsirkel (1942) of Tromsø, skipper John Jakobsen, – and Polarbjørn (1950) of Brandal, skipper Bernt Arnvid Brandal, sailing together in November 1956. The expedition staff – 14 men – was divided between ten men on Polarsirkel and four on Polarbjørn. The ships were well laden with equipment of all kinds, including two tracked vehicles. And in addition, about forty sled dogs.

The voyage went via Las Palmas, Montevideo and Husvika on South Georgia. In Montevideo, bunkering and provisioning were done. At the whaling station in Husvika, a quantity of whale meat and blubber for dog food was taken on board.
The ships arrived at Queen Maud Land. It was Polar Circle that found the most suitable place to land the expedition at 02.32 degrees west. The landing site was called Polar Circle Bay. There the expedition established a secondary station. The main station Norway Station was established about 36 kilometers from the barrier edge. It gradually received the more unofficial name Fimbul.
The two ships returned in January 1957 and went to seal hunting off Newfoundland. They did not keep up any longer. Polarbjørn was somewhat delayed due to a minor engine problem, and Polarsirkel left. But both arrived in Las Palmas. There they disembarked crew members who were to fly home and took on board trappers who had flown in from home and were to go to Newfoundland to seal.

The Antarctic Expedition's scientific tasks: Meteorological measurements and observations; mapping; glaciological and geological investigation; ozone measurement; aurora australis investigation; geomagnetic measurements; tide measurements at the ice barrier station.
During the expedition, expedition leader Sigurd G. Helle, together with a small field party, with two tracked vehicles and two dog teams, made an excursion to about 8 degrees east to supplement the geodetic and topographical work that the expedition had begun with. The expedition yielded important research results, but also had an accident that almost had a tragic outcome. One of the tracked vehicles fell into a crevasse. The vehicle fell so deep that it could not be recovered. The driver managed to save himself by jumping out of the vehicle at the last moment.

Resupply with the Arctic ship Tottan: As long as the expedition stayed at Norway Station, there was a need for both resupply and replacement of crew. Britain and Norway collaborated to charter Tottan from Tønsberg as a relief and supply vessel. (From 1961 the ship was based in Tromsø, under the name Kvitfjell). The relief visit was made in November 1957. Three members of the wintering crew were replaced by three new ones: a doctor, a mechanic and a steward.

Some events while the Norway Station expedition was in Antarctica: Just before the Norway Station expedition left Norway in late autumn 1956, the Soviet Union demonstrated its willingness to use military force to hold its positions. In Hungary, Soviet forces crushed the uprising against Soviet rule in the country.
Director Harald U. Sverdrup of the Norwegian Polar Institute died suddenly in August 1957. Deputy Director Anders K. Orvin was promoted to interim director. But he was close to retirement age and was not fit to hold the directorship in the long term. From 1960, geologist and wartime resistance organizer Tore Gjelsvik was appointed director.
Polarbjørn (1950) sank in ice drifts off Nordaust-Grønland on a relief and supply expedition for the Norwegian Polar Institute and Arktisk Næringsdrift AS in the late summer of 1957. All were rescued by an American helicopter from Greenland. Both Sverdrup's death and the Polarbjørn sinking represented additional stress for the Norwegian Polar Institute.
Shortly afterwards, King Haakon VII died after a period of illness. Olav V became the new king. The country was in mourning – probably also the Norway Station expedition, which wintered in Queen Maud Land.
In the autumn of 1957 came the 'Sputnik shock'. The Soviet Union sent satellites into orbit around the Earth. Soviet nuclear weapons, the willingness to use military force and Soviet rocket technology terrified large parts of the world, not least the main rival, the United States.

Operation Penguin: After the Polarbjørn (1950) sank, the vacant name Polarbjørn was transferred in 1958 to the ship, which was first named Brategg (from 1932) and then Jopeter (from 1950).
Polarbjørn made two trips to Norway Station, in 1958/59 and in 1959/60. On both trips Henrik Marø was the skipper. On the trip in 1959/60 the ship lost two men from the crew. One by falling overboard in dark and heavy seas. By then the ship had sailed a couple of hours south from Cape Town – no further than the lights of the city could still be seen from the ship. A search for the missing man was unsuccessful.
The second died a few days later in an explosion while handling dynamite. In the latter case, the deceased was buried by being sunk into the sea near Bouvetøya. The funeral was conducted by skipper Henrik Marø after a simplified church ritual. This was probably one of the last deaths in which a deceased was buried by being sunk into the sea from a Norwegian vessel.
On the journey further south, the Polarbjørn became stuck in difficult ice. The ship was lifted so high by the ice drift that the cooling water intakes for both the main engine and auxiliary engines were raised above the water surface. This also caused the ship to lose electrical power. It was the Argentine icebreaker San Martin that arrived and broke the Polarbjørn free from the ice.
Polarbjørn's trip in 1959/60 took a South African expedition from Cape Town to Norway Station. The South Africans took over Norway Station for a symbolic sum and named it the South African National Antarctic Expedition (SANAE). The ship took the Norwegian expedition home. A naval briefing was held in Cape Town after the two fatalities on the trip south.
On the trip to Norway Station the previous year – in 1958/59 – Polarbjørn left Horten on 1 November 1958, heading for Penguin Bay. The ship carried an aerial photography group and two De Havilland of Canada DHC-3 Otter aircraft from the Norwegian Air Force. The aircraft had been dismantled and packed in crates for the journey.

The Norwegian flight team consisted of these individuals from the Norwegian Air Force:
Major Gudmund Odden (head of support wing/navigator/telegraphist); Captain Gunnar Nilsen (pilot); Captain Roald Alstad (pilot); Lieutenant Gudmunn Hermansen (navigator/telegraphist); Staff Sergeant Nils M. Bomstad (technical chief engine/electrical); Wing Sergeant Tor Hølen (engine/electrical); Wing Sergeant Odd W. Thoresen (engine/airframe); Wing Sergeant Atle Brundtland (instrument/airframe); Wing Sergeant Bjarne Stamsø (radio).

In addition, these from the Norwegian Polar Institute:
Engineer Bernhard Luncke (photographer/topographer/head of mapping); engineer Sigurd Svindland (photographer); geologist Thore S. Winsnes (fieldwork).
The purpose of the plane and the flight crew was to photograph from the air and map as much of Queen Maud Land as possible. The operation was named Operation Penguin. The commander was Major (later Colonel) Gudmund Odden. Operation Penguin established its own base not far from Norway Station, with the English version of the name: Operation Penguin.
The aircraft was built at the De Havilland factory in Toronto, Canada – and was originally intended for harsh polar conditions, which they have a lot of in northern Canada. The Otter aircraft were considered robust 'bush aircraft'. In connection with Operation Penguin, the aircraft were equipped with photo hatches in the doors. Upon arrival at the base, the aircraft was assembled and ski undercarriage was installed under the wheels.
Operation Penguin photographed in oblique view and mapped as best as possible the area bounded by 70 – 74 degrees south latitude – and from the 0 meridian and as far east as possible towards 15 degrees east longitude. In practice, mountainous areas were photographed from about the 0 meridian and as far east as 30.30 degrees east. The coastline was photographed from about the 0 meridian to about 13 degrees east.
The total flight distance was 36,000 kilometers. The aircraft was in the air for a total of 217 hours. 117 of these flight hours were spent deploying fuel depots. The result of the aerial photography was 3000 photographs.

Operation Penguin was not secret. But the Air Force's involvement was not talked about loudly.

With overflights, mapping and photography, Norway made its mark – suitably discreetly – in international circles. It strengthened Norwegian claims to sovereignty over the area and signaled to others that Norway had interests in this area to protect. The area could not be considered no man's land. An important signal to others who might consider settling in the area.
(The Norwegian airborne branch has changed its name several times, depending on which branch the Air Defense Artillery (LVA) was subordinate to. From 1953, the LVA was subordinate to the Army. The Air Force was named 'The Royal Norwegian Air Force', short form: the Air Force. In 1959, the LVA joined the branch of arms that has since been called the Air Force).

Return trip: Three expedition participants spent the entire time from their arrival in Norway at the turn of the year 1956/57 until their departure in January 1960 in connection: Expedition leader/surveyor Sigurd Gunnarson Helle; meteorologist Torgny Vinje and radio technician John Snuggerud.
Upon departure from Norway Station in mid-January 1960, Polarbjørn was still two men short of its crew, after the ship had lost two men on its way south from Norway.

This was arranged by having two winterers from the expedition, Steward Rolf Leino Johnson and Meteorological Officer Kaare Johan Hansen, join the ship as Steward and Sailor respectively. Others from the expedition team also served on the ship en route, without being formally joined: A photo available online shows that Wing Sergeant Bjarne Stamsø from the flight team served as helmsman.
From Norway Station, Polarbjørn headed west to, if possible, observe the condition of the Maudheim station, which was abandoned in 1952.

The station was so covered in snow that apparently only the radio mast was standing.

But it was noted that over the years the station had moved closer to the coastline.
On its way to Cape Town, Polarbjørn passed Bouvet Island. The weather and visibility were so poor that it was not possible to attempt a landing on the island.
The aforementioned winterers Snuggerud and Vinje had arranged for a Norwegian whaling party on their way to whaling in Antarctica to bring a private car, a Volvo PV 544, from Norway to Cape Town. The two winterers disembarked from the Polar Bear in Cape Town and made the rest of the journey home by car: through East Africa, Egypt, Syria, Turkey and the Balkans. They arrived home in the early summer of 1960.
The year before, in the winter and spring of 1959, radio chief Stein Severin Sørensen and scientific assistant Niels Stockfleth Nergaard had arranged themselves in a similar way. When the Polar Bear docked in Cape Town, they met their wife and girlfriend. Sørensen and his girlfriend took the opportunity to get married in Cape Town. Then all four set off on a road trip through Africa and Europe. This crew chose a more westerly route, through the Sahara and over Gibraltar, among other things.
Polarbjørn was back in Ålesund in February 1960 – just in time to prepare for the seal hunt off Newfoundland.

After returning home: All those who had participated in the expedition as winterers were officially honored. King Olav instituted the Antarctic Medal, which went to all winterers, as well as to the skippers Bernt Arnvid Brandal, John Jakobsen and Henrik Marø. The homecoming was marked with an audience at the Palace and a party in the University Auditorium, where the king was also present.

Long break – before the next Norwegian Antarctic expedition: One of the outcomes of the International Geophysical Year 1957-58 was The Antarctic Treaty. The treaty was signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 – around the same time that Norway Station was handed over to South Africa. The treaty was ratified in 1961.
The treaty considers everything south of 60 degrees south as Antarctica – and considers Antarctica a nature reserve for peace and science. Originally signed by 12 nations. Later, 42 other nations have joined the treaty.

After the Norway Station expedition, it was a long time before there was any talk of a new Norwegian Antarctic expedition. Politically, there was rather limited willingness to spend large amounts of money in Antarctica. As a less expensive measure than new Antarctic expeditions, it was often pointed out that the Arctic was a more natural area for Norwegian polar research.
However, there was growing concern in research circles that Norway was neglecting itself by not participating in research activities in Antarctica. It became increasingly difficult to assert Norwegian claims, as Norway was not conducting any activities in the area.
In 1974, Director Tore Gjelsvik was at a budget conference in the Ministry of Finance. Gjelsvik argued that Norway had one of the greatest claims to sovereignty in Antarctica, and at the same time was one of the countries with the least activity in the area. This could not continue. The result was permission for two summer expeditions: 1976/77 and 1978/79. Spreading over two summer expeditions provided the opportunity to deploy instruments for long-term measurements and compare measurements a couple of years apart.
Both expeditions went to Queen Maud Land and the Weddell Sea with Rieber's ice-going expedition vessel Polarsirkel (1975). Skipper was Magnar Aklestad.

Glaciologist Olav Orheim led the planning of both expeditions and led the first of them himself. The expeditions were a revival of Norwegian activities and research in Antarctica. After these expeditions, Norway had to be taken seriously again in international conferences on Antarctica.
After these expeditions, KV Andenes was in Antarctica with expeditions in 1984/85 and 1989/90. In 1992/93, Polarbjørn (1975) and Lance (1978) were on a joint expedition to Dronning Maud Land. And in 1996-97, Polar Queen (1981) was to Antarctica.
Permanent station in Antarctica: Norway established a summer station on fixed ground 1295 meters above sea level, approximately 235 kilometers from the coast - at position 72 degrees south and 02.32 degrees east during the summer season 1989/90.
From 2005, the station became a year-round station for 8 wintering birds. The station was given the all-Norwegian name Troll, and was opened by Queen Sonja in February 2005.
After that, it is difficult to claim that Norway is not present in Antarctica.

2 x Polar Bear: In the printed accounts of the Norway Station expedition, it is usually mentioned that the trip out in 1956 was with Polar Circle and Polar Bear – and the return trip in 1960 with Polar Bear.

Several representations – but not all! – do not seem to have realized that these are two different Polar Bears.
Polarbjørn on the voyage was a wooden ship, built in 1950. She had a tonnage of 290 gross / 105 net. The ship sank in ice drift on an expedition trip to Nordaust-Grønland for the Norwegian Polar Institute and Arktisk Næringsdrift AS in the late summer of 1957. All were rescued by an American helicopter from Greenland. The skipper was Bernt Arnvid Brandal. The expedition leader was John Giæver – who was also the expedition leader for the Maudheim expedition 1949-52. Passengers on the trip included the parish priest in Ålesund (later bishop of Tromsø), Monrad Norderval. Polarbjørn sank near Nordaust-Grønland at a time when those at Norway Station in Antarctica had probably begun to look forward to Tottan's visit with resupply and replacements in the expedition crew.

The ship that brought the expedition home from Antarctica in January 1960 was a steel ship, built in 1932. She had the names Brategg and Jopeter before taking over the vacant Polarbjørn name in 1958. This ship had a tonnage of 480 gross / 206 net, in other words a significantly larger vessel than the wooden ship Polarbjørn.
There is a photo online showing construction details from Polar Bear (1932) – with accompanying text that clearly refers to Polar Bear (1950).

Additional: About MS Polarhav on assignment for Belgian stakeholders: MS Polarhav (1957) by Brandal were two expedition trips to Antarctica for Belgian clients in connection with the International Geophysical Year. Polarhav was managed by the Karlsen family shipping company in Brandal – the same shipping company as both of the two Polarbjørns – mentioned above. The skipper of Polarhav on both trips was Sigmund Bøe. The leader of the expedition was Baron Gaston de Gerlache de Gomery – with long Antarctic traditions in the family. King Baudouin is said to have shown interest in the expedition. This is said to have contributed to the financing of the project being easier.
The first voyage left Antwerp in mid-November 1957. The ship passed Tenerife and Cape Town. In December the ship headed due south from Cape Town, following MS Polarsirkel (1942) which was on the same mission for the Belgian expedition. The ships reached the unloading point at the ice edge in Breid Bay at 24.18 degrees east. This was also within the Norwegian sector of Dronning Maud Land, on a stretch of coast called Prinsesse Ragnhild Kyst.

The Belgian main station was established about 30 kilometers across the ice from the dumping site. The station recorded all the usual values. All this was within the IGY research program. The station is said to have been one of the first where radioactivity in the air was recorded over a longer period of time.
The ships left the unloading yard in January 1958, but both encountered difficult ice and were trapped for a month before they were freed.
Polarhav stopped in Cape Town for bunkering and provisioning. The ship then headed for Halifax with the aim of fishing off Newfoundland.
In the Atlantic Ocean – west of Angola and southeast of St. Helena – the Polarhav suffered an engine failure. The ship had no spare parts or equipment to make parts on board. After some telegraphing and telephoning, spare parts were sent from the Nohab factory in Trollhättan. The spare parts were dropped from a Sabena plane in shock- and waterproof packages into the sea close to the ship. The packages were quickly fished out and the Nohab engine was put back into operation.

Polarhav's second trip to Antarctica for the Belgians was with supplies and relief crew. The ship left Ostend in November 1958 and followed the same sailing route as the previous year, with stops in Tenerife and Cape Town. The ship entered the ice at Christmas 1958. After unloading what was to be carried ashore, the ship was trapped in difficult ice until February 1959. Then the ship was freed with the help of the American icebreaker Glacier. The ship then continued on to Cape Town.
The Belgian station was closed in 1961. Baron de Gerlache was a delegate at the signing of the Antarctic Treaty in Washington in 1959.
A few years later, the Belgian station was put into use again – this time by a collaborative effort, with Belgian and Dutch interests.

REFERENCES:
Informants: Magnar Aklestad; Susan Barr; Bernt Arnvid Brandal; Sigvald B. Brandal; Sigmund Bøe; John Giæver jr; Sigurd Gunnarson Helle. The staff at the library at the Norwegian Maritime Museum.
Newspaper: Sunnmørsposten: A series of issues in the period August – October 1957.
Literature:
Barr, S. Norway – a consistent polar nation? 2003.
Bøe, S. On shaky ground. 1990.
Børde, H. and KH Johansen. The Antarctic Adventure. 1978.
Friedman, RM 'Eating cherries with the greats.' Norwegian Polar History 2. Sciences. (Eds.: Drivenes, EA. and HD Jølle). 2004.
Ottesen, J. Ships on seal hunt. 2007.
Risa, J. Sailing from pole to pole. With GC Rieber through 100 years of shipping. 2013.
The web:
Van Autenboer, T. 'Obituary' (Memorial of Baron Gaston de Gerlache de Gomery). Polar Record. 43/2007.
Balto, AK The Norwegian Antarctic Expedition 1956-60. Norway Station. Norwegian Polar History. (Norwegian Polar Institute).
Henriksen, HM. The Norwegian Antarctic Expedition 1956-60. Norway Station.
Norwegian Polar Institute (EV Jenssen): Opening of the Antarctic Exhibition (2019).
Stavanger Aftenblad 24.01.2003.
Wikipedia.